Powder research

[tubee]

I like the matte finish look.

[Lemminkainen]

Very informative post - thank you for all the time and effort you put into it

Absolutely. Thank you Lem. I've noticed my 4woods doll doesn't seem to get tacky the way all my other silicone dolls do. Obviously, they're using a different silicone blend to get the "marshmallow skin" feeling, but also there seems to be a surface texture added so the silicone has a matte finish instead of a gloss finish.

That's interesting dragonfly8878! Although your assertions may be suspected, can you find text on their website, papers or documents that accompany the doll, or obtain a statement from 4Woods to verify that? I have also sent emails to three Asian silicone doll manufacturers, met unfortunately without reply.

Please understand, and I say this in a serious but with the most sincere and kind intent to everybody reading this or making replies, that when we make a statement on TDF about potentially hazardous products and/or certain qualities of a manufacturers product, we the members, must provide evidence based on research or confirmation/verification from the manufacturers in order to prove assertions factual. It is not that I don't believe you!
Personally I would love to have opportunity to go into their shop, interview them, and have a chance to touch or feel their products. Because if what you're saying is fact, then it would be logical to think that US doll manufacturers would catch on and begin using that technology/technique. Having a powder smooth doll (without the need of powdering) that doesn't attract dust and hair would be the cat's pajamas!

Please let us know what you can find out about this.

Tubee, I do too and it would be so much better for photography, not to mention keeping cleaner air and environment in the home, as well as eliminating accessory purchases.

[siliconelover]

Yves / Mechadoll invented the textured skin on silicone dolls meaning that Yves was the first to do it and is all he has ever done with his dolls.

I have never powdered my Leeloo. Sponge wash when necessary. The doll is not tacky when clean.

I treat my Boy Toy the same, have never felt the need to powder her either.

I have a new doll that is really tacky, actually sticky. I don't know whether it is because it is new but I suspect it is the nature of the silicone formula. I have never experienced a doll like this.

[Lemminkainen]

Congratulations on your new doll. What brand is it?
Also, can you please find text on their website, papers or documents that accompany the doll, or obtain a statement from Mechadoll to verify that for this thread

[siliconelover]

can you please find text on their website, papers or documents that accompany the doll, or obtain a statement from Mechadoll to verify that for this thread

No. My Leeloo is an original, the one Yves created to take the place of Sophie. She is the original sculpt and design, from the original mould, improved skeleton and I don't know what generation the silicone formula Yves had developed by 2006 was now. Mechadoll today is not the Mechadoll of yesterday for many reasons and aspects.

Why do you think dolls come with paperwork ? Most don't even have a serial number. If you want to verify what I am saying, look back in the threads from long ago. Some of the history is there although much of Mechadoll's info is not, anymore. Most of MPD's should be. I have written about all of this before. I was around in 2006 when Yves unveiled Leeloo in California for the first time. Some of the 'facts' you want are going to come from long time involved members of the doll community like me.

Note: It sounds like you are doing more of a silicone research thread than a powder one as titled. Every doll is different. That goes for ALL dolls, including the same doll from the same manufacturer. Every mix, pour and cure is just a bit different. Some dolls come out better than others. You have to take into consideration all the different aspects of doll making that occur ... measuring, mixing, pouring, temperature, humidity, even the barometric pressure and there is always human error.

[Lemminkainen]

can you please find text on their website, papers or documents that accompany the doll, or obtain a statement from Mechadoll to verify that for this thread

No. ... Mechadoll today is not the Mechadoll of yesterday... Why do you think dolls come with paperwork ? Most don't even have a serial number. If you want to verify what I am saying, look back in the threads from long ago. Some of the history is there although much of Mechadoll's info is not, anymore. Most of MPD's should be. I have written about all of this before. I was around in 2006 when Yves unveiled Leeloo in California for the first time. Some of the 'facts' you want are going to come from long time involved members of the doll community like me.
Note: It sounds like you are doing more of a silicone research thread than a powder one as titled...

If there is no information to be gotten from the manufacturer, that is perfectly understandable.
I do understand that some dolls come with paperwork, but do not know which ones do not, and so if it did, perhaps there was information about this in the accompanying documents. I won't know if it did or not unless I ask.
This thread is not just about me digging up information. It's intended for anybody here to contribute, as stated in my originating post; "At this time I would like to encourage honest and factual feedback; for members to post additional facts and research for support, proof/disproof of evidence and conclusions." So in that spirit, if there are any posts that go back that far that you can recall, could you please post links to them here?
I have to admit, at the time that I created this thread I didn't realize how much of a connection there would be between the two. There I was standing on the shore (no pun intended) examining the land, but only beginning to acknowledge the effects the sea had on it. I didn't think that additional questions or conclusions that are brought about by inquiry and discovery in a thread might necessitate the change of the title of the thread. At this time, it would be most likely appropriate to amend the title by adding onto it. Thank you siliconelover. I appreciate you bringing that up. It makes me wonder how many other threads started off as one thing and turned into something much bigger, that may be should have been retitled. Anyway, there is a lot of general information about different powder mediums that has been brought to light through investigation, as well as the reasons for its use; "Two primary reasons for doll powdering standout. Reduce shine, and to reduce or eliminate stickiness in order to increase tactile smoothness." The question about the silicone that connects to the powder topic is: Was the product made with a kind of silicone, or surface treatment intended to eliminate shine/gloss and stickiness?
Just looking for proof and facts.

[MechLover]

The newest platinum silicones are made to minimise tackiness (I think). However, releasing agents used to remove silicone from the molds can seep out a bit afterwards can make it a little sticky. (maybe) Sorry if i've repeated somebody, I need to piss really bad. (info based on many emails to several matts)

[Lemminkainen]

The newest platinum silicones are made to minimise tackiness (I think). However, releasing agents used to remove silicone from the molds can seep out a bit afterwards can make it a little sticky. (maybe) Sorry if i've repeated somebody, I need to piss really bad. (info based on many emails to several matts)

Thank you Mechlover, and welcome to TDF by the way . I think that this is one of the manufacturers aims too. And then again, maybe it doesn't matter at all to some, because they are content with using the materials that they have used. I mean, if it works use it. A word of caution; When it comes to posting emails, we have to be careful if/when we post them and have to get permission by the other person. Otherwise, you would need to paraphrase everything to where the entire conversation was completely in your own words and does not repeat anything from the originating email word for word.

I took a look at the two Mechadoll websites. One gives a lot of product information, and the other is more or less an ordering platform.
I have asked permission to post the information from their webpage. What I can tell you right now without posting the actual excerpt, is that the manufacturers statement about their product can verify other members testimonials.

Updated - This silicone quality info is on their webpage: http://www.mechadoll.com/pages/language/us/techno1.html

[MechLover]

A word of caution; When it comes to posting emails, we have to be careful if/when we post them and have to get permission by the other person. Otherwise, you would need to paraphrase everything to where the entire conversation was completely in your own words and does not repeat anything from the originating email word for word.

I took a look at the two Mechadoll websites. One gives a lot of product information, and the other is more or less an ordering platform.
I have asked permission to post the information from their webpage. What I can tell you right now without posting the actual excerpt, is that the manufacturers statement about their product can verify other members testimonials.

Thank you Lemminkainen. I used my own words to describe roughly what they meant and used 'matts' as a joke referring to the many matts in the doll business!

[siliconelover]

Nice job MechLover.

[Lemminkainen]

Thank you Lemminkainen. I used my own words to describe roughly what they meant and used 'matts' as a joke referring to the many matts in the doll business!

Well done!

[Joe Bin]

Thank you for the extensive research Lem.

Interestingly, I had to quit using baby powder or talc because of allergic reactions. I react some to cornstarch, but not nearly as bad.
I would like to find a different solution entirely, but as it stands if I don't Powder my dolls they are too hard to dress.

[Lemminkainen]

Thank you for the extensive research Lem.

Interestingly, I had to quit using baby powder or talc because of allergic reactions. I react some to cornstarch, but not nearly as bad.
I would like to find a different solution entirely, but as it stands if I don't Powder my dolls they are too hard to dress.

I have a suggestion, but it's off topic, so Ill pm you, okay?

[Lemminkainen]

Here are some additional powder mediums.
Even though these are household/mundane materials, not everybody is aware of their properties or characteristics, so I felt it would be wise to display the information, regardless of how silly it may seem to some people. Sharing information empowers others.

baking sodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It has a slightly salty, alkaline taste resembling that of washing soda (sodium carbonate). The natural mineral form is nahcolite. It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in many mineral springs. It is among the food additives encoded by European Union, identified by the initials E 500. Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, and bicarbonate of soda. In colloquial usage, its name is sometimes shortened to sodium bicarb, bicarb soda, simply bicarb, or even bica. The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus meaning aerated salt, was widely used in the 19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. The term has now fallen out of common usage. Sodium bicarbonate is usually called baking soda in general terms.
History[edit]
The ancient Egyptians used natural deposits of natron, a mixture consisting mostly of sodium carbonate decahydrate, and sodium bicarbonate. The natron was used as a cleansing agent like soap.
In 1791, a French chemist, Nicolas Leblanc, produced sodium carbonate, also known as soda ash. In 1846, two New York bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church, established the first factory to develop baking soda from sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.[6]
This compound, referred to as saleratus, is mentioned in the famous novel Captains Courageous by Rudyard Kipling as being used extensively in the 1800s in commercial fishing to prevent freshly-caught fish from spoiling.[7]
Production[edit]
Main article: Solvay process
NaHCO3 is mainly prepared by the Solvay process, which is the reaction of sodium chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in water. Calcium carbonate is used as the source of CO2 and the resultant calcium oxide is used to recover the ammonia from the ammonium chloride. The product shows a low purity (75%). Pure product is obtained from sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide as reported in one of the following reactions. It is produced on the scale of about 100,000 tonnes/year (as of 2001).[8]
NaHCO3 may be obtained by the reaction of carbon dioxide with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The initial reaction produces sodium carbonate:
CO2 + 2 NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
Further addition of carbon dioxide produces sodium bicarbonate, which at sufficiently high concentration will precipitate out of solution:
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2 NaHCO3
Commercial quantities of baking soda are also produced by a similar method: soda ash, mined in the form of the ore trona, is dissolved in water and treated with carbon dioxide. Sodium bicarbonate precipitates as a solid from this method:
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2 NaHCO3
Mining[edit]
Naturally occurring deposits of nahcolite (NaHCO3) are found in the Eocene-age (55.8–33.9 Ma) Green River Formation, Piceance Basin in Colorado. Nahcolite was deposited as beds during periods of high evaporation in the basin. It is commercially mined using in-situ leach techniques involving dissolution of the nahcolite by heated water that is pumped through the nahcolite beds and reconstituted through a natural cooling crystallization process.
Chemistry[edit]
Sodium bicarbonate is an amphoteric compound. Aqueous solutions are mildly alkaline due to the formation of carbonic acid and hydroxide ion:
HCO−
3 + H2O → H
2CO
3 + OH−
Sodium bicarbonate can be used as a wash to remove any acidic impurities from a "crude" liquid, producing a purer sample. Reaction of sodium bicarbonate and an acid produce a salt and carbonic acid, which readily decomposes to carbon dioxide and water:
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2CO3H2CO3 → H2O + CO2(g)
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid (found in vinegar), producing sodium acetate, water, and carbon dioxide:
NaHCO3 + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2(g)
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with bases such as sodium hydroxide to form carbonates:
NaHCO3 + NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with carboxyl groups in proteins to give a brisk effervescence from the formation of CO
2. This reaction is used to test for the presence of carboxylic groups in protein.[citation needed]
Thermal decomposition[edit]
Above 50 °C, sodium bicarbonate gradually decomposes into sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide. The conversion is fast at 200 °C:[9]
2 NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Most bicarbonates undergo this dehydration reaction. Further heating converts the carbonate into the oxide (at over 850°C):[9]
Na2CO3 → Na2O + CO2
These conversions are relevant to the use of NaHCO3 as a fire-suppression agent ("BC powder") in some dry powder fire extinguishers.
Applications[edit]
Sodium bicarbonate is used in a process for removing paint and corrosion called sodablasting; the process is particularly suitable for cleaning aluminium panels which can be distorted by other types of abrasive. It can be administered to pools, spas, and garden ponds to raise pH levels.[10] It has weak disinfectant properties,[11][12] and it may be an effective fungicide against some organisms.[13] Because baking soda will absorb musty smells, it has become a reliable method for used-book sellers when making books less malodorous.[14]
Fire extinguisher[edit]
Sodium bicarbonate can be used to extinguish small grease or electrical fires by being thrown over the fire.[15] However, it should not be applied to fires in deep fryers, as it may cause the grease to splatter.[15] Sodium bicarbonate is used in BC dry chemical fire extinguishers as an alternative to the more corrosive ammonium phosphate in ABC extinguishers. The alkali nature of sodium bicarbonate makes it the only dry chemical agent, besides Purple-K, that was used in large-scale fire suppression systems installed in commercial kitchens. Because it can act as an alkali, the agent has a mild saponification effect on hot grease, which forms a smothering soapy foam.
Cooking[edit]
Main article: Leavening agent
Sodium bicarbonate, referred to as "baking soda" is primarily used in cooking (baking), as a leavening agent. It reacts with acidic components in batters, releasing carbon dioxide, which causes expansion of the batter and forms the characteristic texture and grain in pancakes, cakes, quick breads, soda bread, and other baked and fried foods. Acidic compounds that induce this reaction include phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, vinegar, etc. Sodium bicarbonate can be substituted for baking powder provided sufficient acid reagent is also added to the recipe.[16] Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with calcium acid phosphate, sodium aluminum sulphate [17] or cream of tartar.
Sodium bicarbonate was sometimes used in cooking vegetables, to make them softer, although this has gone out of fashion, as most people now prefer firmer vegetables. However, it is still used in Asian and Latin American cuisine to tenderise meats. Baking soda may react with acids in food, including Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid). It is also used in breadings such as for fried foods to enhance crispness.
Heat causes sodium bicarbonate to act as a raising agent by releasing carbon dioxide when used in baking. The carbon dioxide production starts at temperatures above 80 °C. Since the reaction does not occur at room temperature, mixtures (cake batter, etc.) can be allowed to stand without rising until they are heated in the oven.
Neutralization of acids and bases[edit]
Many laboratories keep a bottle of sodium bicarbonate powder within easy reach, because sodium bicarbonate is amphoteric, reacting with acids and bases. Furthermore, as it is relatively innocuous in most situations, there is no harm in using excess sodium bicarbonate. Also, sodium bicarbonate powder may be used to smother a small fire, as heating of sodium bicarbonate releases carbon dioxide.[15]
A wide variety of applications follows from its neutralization properties, including reducing the spread of white phosphorus from incendiary bullets inside an afflicted soldier's wounds.[18][medical citation needed]
Medical uses[edit]
Sodium bicarbonate mixed with water can be used as an antacid to treat acid indigestion and heartburn.[19] It is used as the medicinal ingredient in gripe water for infants.[20]
Intravenous sodium bicarbonate is an aqueous solution that is sometimes used for cases of acidosis, or when there are insufficient sodium or bicarbonate ions in the blood.[21] In cases of respiratory acidosis, the infused bicarbonate ion drives the carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer of plasma to the left and, thus, raises the pH. It is for this reason that sodium bicarbonate is used in medically supervised cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Infusion of bicarbonate is indicated only when the blood pH is markedly (<7.1–7.0) low.[22]
It is used for treatment of hyperkalemia.[medical citation needed] Since sodium bicarbonate can cause alkalosis, it is sometimes used to treat aspirin overdoses. Aspirin requires an acidic environment for proper absorption, and the basic environment diminishes aspirin absorption in the case of an overdose.[medical citation needed] Sodium bicarbonate has also been used in the treatment of tricyclic antidepressant overdose.[23] It can also be applied topically as a paste, with three parts baking soda to one part water, to relieve some kinds of insect bites and stings (as well as accompanying swelling).[24]
Adverse reactions to the administration of sodium bicarbonate can include metabolic alkalosis, edema due to sodium overload, congestive heart failure, hyperosmolar syndrome, hypervolemic hypernatremia, and hypertension due to increased sodium. In patients consuming a high-calcium or dairy-rich diet, calcium supplements, or calcium-containing antacids such as calcium carbonate (e.g., Tums), the use of sodium bicarbonate can cause milk-alkali syndrome, which can result in metastatic calcification, kidney stones, and kidney failure.
Sodium bicarbonate can be used to treat an allergic reaction to plants such as poison -ivy -oak or -sumac to relieve some of the associated itching.[25]
Bicarbonate of soda can also be useful in removing splinters from the skin.[26]
Some alternative practitioners, such as Tullio Simoncini, have promoted baking soda as a cancer cure, which the American Cancer Society has warned against due to both its unproven effectiveness and potential danger in use.[27]
Personal hygiene[edit]
Toothpaste containing sodium bicarbonate has in several studies shown to have a better
Sodium bicarbonate is also used as an ingredient in some mouthwashes. It has anti-caries and abrasive properties.[33] It works as a mechanical cleanser on the teeth and gums, neutralizes the production of acid in the mouth and also acts as an antiseptic to help prevent infections.[citation needed]
Sodium bicarbonate in combination with other ingredients can be used to make a dry or wet deodorant.[34][35] It may also be used as a shampoo.[36]
Sodium bicarbonate may be used as a buffering agent, combined with table salt, when creating a solution for nasal irrigation.[37]
In sports[edit]
Small amounts of sodium bicarbonate have been shown to be useful as a supplement for athletes in speed-based events, like middle distance running, lasting from about one to seven minutes.[38][39] However, overdose is a serious risk because sodium bicarbonate is slightly toxic;[40] gastrointestinal irritation is of particular concern.[39] Additionally, this practice causes a significant increase in dietary sodium.
As a cleaning agent[edit]
A paste from baking soda can be very effective when used in cleaning and scrubbing.[41] For cleaning aluminium objects, the use of sodium bicarbonate is discouraged as it attacks the thin unreactive protective oxide layer of this otherwise very reactive metal. A solution in warm water will remove the tarnish from silver when the silver is in contact with a piece of aluminium foil.[42][43] A paste of sodium bicarbonate and water is useful in removing surface rust as the rust forms a water soluble compound when in a concentrated alkaline solution.[44] Cold water should be used as hot water solutions can corrode steel.[45]
Baking soda is commonly added to washing machines as a replacement for softener and to remove odors from clothes. Sodium bicarbonate is also effective in removing heavy tea and coffee stains from cups when diluted with warm water.
During the Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb in the early 1940s, many scientists investigated the toxic properties of uranium. They found that uranium oxides stick very well to cotton cloth, but did not wash out with soap or laundry detergent. The uranium would wash out with a 2% solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). Clothing can become contaminated with depleted uranium (DU) dust and normal laundering will not remove it. Those at risk of DU dust exposure should have their clothing washed with baking soda (about 6 ounces (170g) of baking soda in 2 gallons (7.5l) of water).[46]
As a biopesticide[edit]
Sodium bicarbonate can be an effective way of controlling fungus growth,[47] and in the United States is registered by the Environmental Protection Agency as a biopesticide.[48]
Cattle feed supplements[edit]
Sodium bicarbonate is sold as a cattle feed supplement, in particular as a buffering agent for the rumen.[49]
Difference between baking soda and baking powder[edit]
In comparison to baking powder, baking soda is more alkaline and requires an acid to avoid the metallic taste when the chemical change creates sodium carbonate. Baking powder, on the other hand, contains baking soda, a powdered acid and cornstarch. In scientific terms, baking soda is a pure substance; baking powder is a mixture.[52]
If baking soda is used in baking, something acidic must be added to avoid the metallic taste of sodium carbonate; but with baking powder, non-acid ingredients such as whole milk or Dutch-processed cocoa must be added to avoid the over-flavouring of acidic taste.[53]
See also[edit]
Carbonic acid
Irish soda bread
List of ineffective cancer treatments
List of minerals
Nahcolite
Natron
Natrona (disambiguation)
Trona
Washing soda


Baking powder
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking_powder
Baking powder
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
U.S. consumer-packaged baking powder. Ingredients: monocalcium phosphate, sodium bicarbonate, cornstarch.
Baking powder is a dry chemical leavening agent, a mixture of a carbonate or bicarbonate and a weak acid, and is used for increasing the volume and lightening the texture of baked goods. Baking powder works by releasing carbon dioxide gas into a batter or dough through an acid-base reaction, causing bubbles in the wet mixture to expand and thus leavening the mixture. It is used instead of yeast for end-products where fermentation flavors would be undesirable[1] or where the batter lacks the elastic structure to hold gas bubbles for more than a few minutes,[2] or for convenience. Because carbon dioxide is released at a faster rate through the acid-base reaction than through fermentation, breads made by chemical leavening are called quick breads.
Formulation and mechanism[edit]
Most commercially available baking powders are made up of sodium bicarbonate (also known as baking soda or bicarbonate of soda) and one or more acid salts. Typical formulations (by weight) call for 30% sodium bicarbonate, 5-12% monocalcium phosphate, and 21-26% sodium aluminium sulfate. The last two ingredients are acidic: they combine with the sodium bicarbonate and water to produce the gaseous carbon dioxide. The use of two acidic components is the basis of the term "double acting." A classical acid that is also common is cream of tartar, a derivative of tartaric acid. Baking powders also include components to help with the consistency and stability of the mixture.[3]
Commercial baking powders are formulated differently than domestic ones, although the principles remain the same. Instead of sodium aluminium sulfate, commercial baking powders use sodium acid pyrophosphate as one of the two acidic components.
Monocalcium phosphate ("MCP") is a common acid component in domestic baking powders.
Baking soda (NaHCO3) is the source of the carbon dioxide,[4] and the acid-base reaction can be generically represented as shown:[5]
NaHCO3 + H+ → Na+ + CO2 + H2O
The real reactions are more complicated because the acids are complicated. For example starting baking soda and monocalcium phosphate is proposed to react to produce carbon dioxide by this stoichiometry:[3]
14 NaHCO3 + 5 Ca(H2PO4)2H2O → 14 CO2 + Ca5(PO4)3OH + 7 Na2HPO4 + 18 H2O
Starch Component[edit]
Baking powders also include components to improve their consistency and stability. The most important additive is cornstarch,[3] although potato starch may also be used. The inert starch serves several functions in baking powder. Primarily it is used to absorb moisture, and thus prolong shelf life by keeping the powder's alkaline and acidic components dry so as not to react with each other prematurely. A dry powder also flows and mixes more easily. Finally, the added bulk allows for more accurate measurements.[6]
Single vs double acting baking powders[edit]
The acid in a baking powder can be either fast-acting or slow-acting.[7] A fast-acting acid reacts in a wet mixture with baking soda at room temperature, and a slow-acting acid will not react until heated in an oven. Baking powders that contain both fast- and slow-acting acids are double acting; those that contain only one acid are single acting. By providing a second rise in the oven, double-acting baking powders increase the reliability of baked goods by rendering the time elapsed between mixing and baking less critical, and this is the type most widely available to consumers today. Double-acting baking powders work in two phases; once when cold, and once when hot.[8] Common low-temperature acid salts include cream of tartar and monocalcium phosphate (also called calcium acid phosphate). High-temperature acid salts include sodium aluminium sulfate, sodium aluminum phosphate, and sodium acid pyrophosphate.[9]
Rumford Baking Powder is a double acting consumer product that contains only monocalcium phosphate as a leavening acid. With this acid, about two-thirds of the available gas is released within about two minutes of mixing at room temperature. It then becomes dormant because an intermediate form of dicalcium phosphate is generated during the initial mixing. Further release of gas requires the batter to be heated above 140 degrees F.[10]
History[edit]
Early chemical leavening was accomplished by activating baking soda in the presence of liquid(s) and an acid such as sour milk, vinegar, lemon juice, or cream of tartar.[11] These acidulants all react with baking soda quickly, meaning that retention of gas bubbles was dependent on batter viscosity and that it was critical for the batter to be baked before the gas escaped. The development of baking powder created a system where the gas-producing reactions could be delayed until needed.[12]
German advertisement for Dr. Oetker's baking powder in 1903.
While various baking powders were sold in the first half of the 19th century, our modern variants were discovered by Alfred Bird in 1843. August Oetker, a German pharmacist, made baking powder very popular when he began selling his mixture to housewives. The recipe he created in 1891 is still sold as Backin in Germany. Oetker started the mass production of baking powder in 1898 and patented his technique in 1903.
In the US, Joseph and Cornelius Hoagland developed a baking powder with the help of an employee following the American Civil War. Their formula became known as Royal Baking Powder. The small company eventually moved from Fort Wayne, Indiana to New York in the 1890s and became the largest manufacturer of baking powder in the US.[citation needed]
Eben Norton Horsford, a student of Justus von Liebig, who began his studies on baking powder in 1856, eventually developed a variety he named in honor of Count Rumford. By the mid-1860s "Horsford's Yeast Powder" was on the market as an already-mixed leavening agent, distinct from separate packages of calcium acid phosphate and sodium bicarbonate. His product was packaged in bottles, but Horsford was interested in using metal cans for packing; this meant the mixture had to be more moisture resistant. This was accomplished by the addition of corn starch, and in 1869 Rumford began the manufacture of what can truly be considered baking powder. In 2006 Rumford Baking Powder was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of its significance for making baking easier, quicker, and more reliable.[13]
During World War II, Byron H. Smith, an inventor in Bangor, Maine (U.S.), created a substitute product for American housewives, who were unable to obtain cream of tartar or baking powder due to war food shortages. Under the name "Bakewell", Smith marketed a mixture of sodium pyrophosphate mixed with corn starch to replace the acid cream of tartar component of baking powder. When mixed with baking soda, the product behaved like a single-acting baking powder, the only difference being that the acid is sodium acid pyrophosphate.
Use[edit]
Effective baking powder foams when placed in hot water.
Generally one teaspoon (5 ml) of baking powder is used to raise a mixture of one cup (200-250 ml) of flour, one cup of liquid, and one egg. However, if the mixture is acidic, baking powder's additional acids will remain unconsumed in the chemical reaction and often lend an unpleasant taste to food. High acidity can be caused by ingredients like buttermilk, lemon, yogurt, citrus or honey. When excessive acid is present, some of the baking powder should be replaced with baking soda. For example, one cup of flour, one egg, and one cup of buttermilk requires only ½ teaspoon of baking powder—the remaining leavening is caused by buttermilk acids reacting with ¼ teaspoon of baking soda.[citation needed]
On the other hand, if baking powders that contain sodium acid pyrophosphate, excess alkaline substances can sometimes deprotonate the acid in two steps instead of the one that normally occurs, resulting in an offensive bitter taste to baked goods. Calcium compounds and aluminium compounds do not have that problem though, since calcium compounds that deprotonate twice are insoluble and aluminium compounds do not deprotonate in that fashion.
Moisture and heat can cause baking powder to lose its effectiveness over time, and commercial varieties have a somewhat arbitrary expiration date printed on the container. Regardless of the expiration date, the effectiveness can be tested by placing a teaspoon of the powder into a small container of hot water. If it bubbles energetically, it is still active and usable.[14]
Substituting in recipes[edit]
Substitute acids[edit]
As described above, baking powder is mainly just baking soda mixed with an acid. In principle, a number of kitchen acids may be combined with baking soda to simulate commercial baking powders. Vinegar (dilute acetic acid), especially white vinegar, is also a common acidifier in baking; for example, many heirloom chocolate cake recipes call for a tablespoon or two of vinegar.[15] Where a recipe already uses buttermilk or yogurt, baking soda can be used without cream of tartar (or with less). Alternatively, lemon juice can be substituted for some of the liquid in the recipe, to provide the required acidity to activate the baking soda. The main variable with the use of these kitchen acids is the rate of leavening.
Substitutes for baking soda[edit]
In times past, when chemically manufactured baking soda was not available, "ash water" was used instead. Ashes from hardwood trees contain carbonates and bicarbonate salts, which can be extracted with water. This approach became obsolete with the availability of purified baking soda.
Usage of aluminium compounds[edit]
Baking powders are available both with and without aluminium compounds.[16] Some people prefer not to use baking powder with aluminium because they believe it gives food a vaguely metallic taste and aluminium is not an essential mineral. Others object because of possible health concerns associated with aluminum intake.
See also[edit]
Bakewell Cream
Calumet Baking Powder Company
Clabber Girl
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Irish soda bread


Potato starch
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_starch
Potato starch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Potato starch
Potato starch is starch extracted from potatoes. The cells of the root tubers of the potato plant contain starch grains (leucoplasts). To extract the starch, the potatoes are crushed; the starch grains are released from the destroyed cells. The starch is then washed out and dried to powder.
Potato starch contains typical large oval spherical granules; their size ranges between 5 and 100 μm. Potato starch is a very refined starch, containing minimal protein or fat. This gives the powder a clear white colour, and the cooked starch typical characteristics of neutral taste, good clarity, high binding strength, long texture and a minimal tendency to foaming or yellowing of the solution.
Potato starch contains approximately 800 ppm phosphate bound to the starch; this increases the viscosity and gives the solution a slightly anionic character, a low gelatinisation temperature (approximately 140 °F or 60 °C[1]) and high swelling power.
These typical properties are used in food and technical applications.[2]
Starch derivatives are used in many recipes, for example in noodles, wine gums, cocktail nuts, potato chips, hot dog sausages, bakery cream and instant soups and sauces, in gluten-free recipes[3] in kosher foods for Passover[4] and in Asian cuisine.[5] In pastry, e.g. sponge cake, it is used to keep the cake moist and give a soft texture. It is also occasionally used in the preparation of pre-packed grated cheese, to reduce sweating and binding.
Other examples are helmipuuro a porridge made from monodisperse grains of potato starch and milk, papeda, the Moluccan community in the Netherlands use potato starch to make papeda, soul food of the Moluccan Archipelago (East-Indonesia). On the Moluccan islands they use sago flour to make the original papeda. Papeda is also eaten by the Papuan people of New Guinea.
It is also used in technical applications as wallpaper adhesive, for textile finishing and textile sizing, in paper coating and sizing and as an adhesive in paper sacks and gummed tape.
Potato starch was also used in one of the earlier color photography processes, the Lumière brothers' Autochrome Lumière, until the arrival of colour film in the mid-1930s.
Potato varieties[edit]
Microsopic view: potato starch (amyloplasts) in plant cell
There are many types of potatoes. For the production of potato starch, potato varieties with high starch content (high under water weight) and high starch yields are selected. Recently, a new type of potato plant was developed that only contains one type of starch molecule: amylopectin, the waxy potato starch. Waxy starches, after starch gelatinisation, retrograde less during storage.
The cultivation of potatoes for starch mainly takes place in Germany, the Netherlands, China, Japan,[6] France, Denmark and Poland, but also in Sweden, Finland, Austria, the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Canada and India.
Some potato starch is also produced as a by-product from the potato processing industry, recovered from the potato cutting circuit during the production of French fries and potato chips.
See also[edit]
Corn starch
Katakuriko
Potato starch production


Flour
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour
Flour
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Three different kinds of wheat and rye flour. From left to right: wheat flour Type 550, wheat flour Type 1050, rye flour Type 1150
Flour is a powder which is made by grinding cereal grains, beans, or other seeds or roots (like cassava). It is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures, making the availability of adequate supplies of flour a major economic and political issue at various times throughout history. Wheat flour is one of the most important ingredients in European, North American, Middle Eastern, Indian and North African cultures, and is the defining ingredient in most of their styles of breads and pastries.
While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, and remains a staple throughout the Americas. Rye flour is an important constituent of bread in much of central Europe, and rice can also be used in flour, though this is relatively uncommon.
Etymology[edit]
The English word for "flour" is originally a variant of the word "flower". Both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning "blossom," and a figurative meaning "the finest." The phrase "fleur de farine" meant "the finest part of the meal," since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse and unwanted matter from the grain during milling.[1]
History[edit]
A field of wheat prior to harvesting
Main article: Wheat
It was discovered around 6000 BC that wheat seeds could be crushed between simple millstones to make flour.[2] The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills. In 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London.[3] In the 1930s, some flour began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s.
Degermed and heat-processed flour[edit]
An important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life. The reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled; the fatty acids oxidize and flour starts to become rancid. Depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for an industrial production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micro nutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, removing the germ was an effective solution. Without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermed flour became standard. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside. Heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again.[4]
The FDA has been advised by several cookie dough manufacturers that they have implemented the use of heat-treated flour for their "ready-to-bake cookie dough" products to reduce the risk of E. coli bacterial contamination.[5]
Production[edit]
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Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels. Today, "stone-ground" usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. Many small appliance mills are available, both hand-cranked and electric. The mill stones frequently rub against each other resulting in small stone particles chipping off and getting into flour, but they are removed before the flour is sold.
Modern mills[edit]
Main article: Gristmill
Rollermills soon replaced stone grist mills as the production of flour has historically driven technological development, as attempts to make gristmills more productive and less labor-intensive led to the watermill[6] and windmill. These terms are now applied more broadly to uses of water and wind power for purposes other than milling.[7] More recently, the Unifine mill, an impact-type mill, was developed in the mid-20th century.
Composition[edit]
Flour being stored in large cloth sacks
Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour (known as self-raising outside North America), and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts.[8]
Unbleached flour[edit]
Unbleached flour is simply flour that has not undergone bleaching and therefore does not have the color of "white" flour. An example of this would be the Graham flour. Sylvester Graham was against using bleaching agents, which he considered unhealthy.
Bleached flour[edit]
Main article: Flour bleaching agent
"Refined flour" has had the germ and bran removed and is typically referred to as "white flour". "Bleached flour" is any refined flour with a whitening agent added.
Bleached flour is artificially aged using a bleaching agent, a maturing agent, or both. A bleaching agent would affect only the carotenoids in the flour; a maturing agent affects gluten development. A maturing agent may either strengthen or weaken gluten development.
The four most common additives used as bleaching/maturing agents in the USA at this time are:
Potassium bromate (will be listed as an ingredient/additive) - a maturing agent that strengthens gluten development. Does not bleach.
Benzoyl peroxide - bleaches. Does not act as a maturing agent - no effect on gluten
Ascorbic acid (Will be listed as an ingredient/additive, but seeing it in the ingredient list may not be an indication that the flour was matured using ascorbic acid but instead has had a small amount added as a dough enhancer) - Maturing agent that strengthens gluten development. Does not bleach.
Chlorine gas - both a bleaching agent and a maturing agent, but one that weakens gluten development. Chlorination also oxidizes starches in the flour, making it easier for the flour to absorb water and swell, resulting in thicker batters and stiffer doughs. The retarded gluten formation is desirable in cakes, cookies, and biscuits as it would otherwise make them tougher and bread-like. The modification of starches in the flour allows the use of wetter doughs (making for a moister end product) without destroying the structure necessary for light fluffy cakes and biscuits.[9] Chlorinated flour allows cakes and other baked goods to set faster, rise better, the fat to be distributed more evenly, with less vulnerability to collapse.
Cake flours in particular are nearly always chlorinated. There is at least one flour labeled "unbleached cake flour blend" (marketed by King Arthur) that is not bleached, but the protein content is much higher than typical cake flour at about 9.4% protein (cake flour is usually around 6% to 8%). According to King Arthur, this flour is a blend of a more finely milled unbleached wheat flour and cornstarch, which makes a better end result than unbleached wheat flour alone (cornstarch blended with all purpose flour commonly substituted for cake flour when the latter is unavailable). The end product, however, is denser than would result from lower-protein, chlorinated cake flour.[citation needed]
All bleaching and maturing agents (with the possible exception of ascorbic acid) have been banned in UK.[10]
Bromination of flour in the USA has fallen out of favor and while it is not yet actually banned anywhere, few retail flours available to the home baker are bromated anymore.
Many flours packaged specifically for commercial bakeries are still bromated. Retail bleached flours marketed to the home baker are now treated mostly with either peroxidation or chlorine gas. Current information from Pillsbury is that their bleached flours are treated both with benzoyl peroxide and chlorine gas. Gold Medal states that their bleached flour is treated either with benzoyl peroxide or chlorine gas, but there is no way to tell which process has been used when buying the flour at the grocery store.
Some other chemicals used as Flour treatment agents to modify color and baking properties include:
chlorine dioxide (unstable to be transported in the U.S.)
Calcium peroxide
Azodicarbonamide or azobisformamide (synthetic)
Atmospheric oxygen causes natural bleaching.
Plain flour[edit]
Flour that does not have a leavening agent is called plain or all-purpose flour. It is appropriate for most bread and pizza bases. Some cookies are also prepared using this type of flour. Bread flour is high in gluten protein, with 12.5-14% protein compared to 10-12% protein in all-purpose flour. The increased protein binds to the flour to entrap carbon dioxide released by the yeast fermentation process, resulting in a stronger rise.
Self-rising flour[edit]
Leavening agents are used with some flours,[11] especially those with significant gluten content, to produce lighter and softer baked products by embedding small gas bubbles. Self-rising (or self-raising) flour is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. The added ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the flour which aids a consistent rise in baked goods. This flour is generally used for preparing scones, biscuits, muffins, etc. It was invented by Henry Jones and patented in 1845. Plain flour can be used to make a type of self-rising flour although the flour will be coarser. Self-rising flour is typically composed of the following ratio:
1 cup (125 g) flour
1 teaspoon (3 g) baking powder
a pinch to ½ teaspoon (1 g or less) salt
Enriched flour[edit]
Main article: Enriched flour
During the process of making flour nutrients are lost. Some of these nutrients are replaced during refining and the result is "enriched flour".
Common preservatives sometimes added to commercial flour[edit]
Calcium propanoateSodium benzoateTricalcium phosphateButylated hydroxyanisole
Types[edit]
Wheat flour[edit]
Main article: Wheat flour
Wheat is the grain most commonly used to make flour. Certain varieties may be referred to as "clean" or "white". Other terms are given to wheat flour depending on its gluten content. Products with a high amount of gluten are identified with terms such as "strong", or "hard", whereas those with low levels of the protein are referred to as "soft" or "weak". "Brown" and wholemeal flours may be made of hard or soft wheat.
Other flours[edit]
A variety of types of flour and cereals sold at a bazaar in Bishkek, KyrgyzstanAcorn flour is made from ground acorns and can be used as a substitute for wheat flour. It was used by Native Americans. Koreans also use acorn flour to make Dotorimuk
Almond flour is made from ground almonds, suitable for people with gluten-free diets or Coeliac disease.
Amaranth flour is a flour produced from ground amaranth grain. It was commonly used in pre-Columbian meso-American cuisine and was originally cultivated by the Aztecs. It is becoming more and more available in speciality food shops.
Atta flour is a whole-grain wheat flour important in Indian and Pakistani cuisine, used for a range of breads such as roti and chapati.
Bean flour is a flour produced from pulverized dried or ripe beans. Garbanzo and Fava bean flour is a gluten-free flour mixture with a high nutritional value and strong aftertaste
Brown rice flour is of great importance in Southeast Asian cuisine. Also edible rice paper can be made from it.
Buckwheat flour is used as an ingredient in many pancakes in the United States. In Japan, it is used to make a popular noodle called soba. In Russia, buckwheat flour is added to the batter for pancakes called blinis which are frequently eaten with caviar. Buckwheat flour is also used to make crêpes bretonnes in Brittany. On Hindu fasting days (Navaratri mainly, also Maha Shivaratri), people eat items made of buckwheat flour. The preparation varies across India. The famous ones are Kuttu Ki Puri and Kuttu Pakoras. In most of northern and western states they call this Kuttu ka atta.
Cassava flour is made from the root of the cassava plant. In a purified form (pure starch), it is called tapioca flour (see in list, below)
Chestnut flour is popular in Corsica, the Périgord and Lunigiana for breads, cakes and pastas. It is the original ingredient for "polenta", still used as such in Corsica and other Mediterranean locations. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks.[12] In other parts of Italy it is mainly used for desserts.
Chickpea flour (also known as gram flour or besan) is of great importance in Indian cuisine,and in Italy, where it is used for the Ligurian farinata.
Chuño flour made from dried potatoes in various countries of South America
Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, having a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates makes an excellent choice for those looking to restrict their carbohydrate intake.
Corn (maize) flour is popular in the Southern and Southwestern US, Mexico, Central America, and Punjab regions of India and Pakistan, where it called as Makkai Ka Atta. Coarse whole-grain corn flour is usually called corn meal. Finely ground corn flour that has been treated with food-grade lime is called masa harina (see masa) and is used to make tortillas and tamales in Mexican cooking. Corn flour should never be confused with cornstarch, which is known as "cornflour" in British English.
Cornmeal is very similar to corn flour (see above) except in a coarser grind.
Cornstarch is powdered endosperm of the corn kernel.
Glutinous rice flour or sticky rice flour, used in east and southeast Asian cuisines for making tangyuan, etc.
Hemp flour is produced by pressing the oil from the hemp seed, and milling the residue. Hemp seed is approximately 30% oil and 70% residue. Hemp flour doesn't rise, and is best mixed with other flours. Added to any flour by about 15-20%, it gives a spongy nutty texture and flavor with a green hue.
Maida flour is a finely milled wheat flour used to make a wide variety of Indian breads such as paratha and naan. Maida is widely used not only in Indian cuisine but also in Central Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine.Though sometimes referred to as "all-purpose flour" by Indian chefs, it more closely resembles cake flour or even pure starch. In India, maida flour is used to make pastries and other bakery items such as bread, biscuits and toast.
Mesquite flour is made from the dried and ground pods of the Mesquite tree which grows throughout North America in arid climates. The flour has a sweet, slightly nutty flavor and can be used in a wide variety of applications.[13]
Noodle flour is a special blend of flour used for the making of Asian style noodles. The flour could be from wheat or rice.
Nut flours are grated from oily nuts — most commonly almonds and hazelnuts — and are used instead of or in addition to wheat flour to produce more dry and flavorful pastries and cakes. Cakes made with nut flours are usually called tortes and most originated in Central Europe, in countries such as Hungary and Austria.
Peasemeal or pea flour is a flour produced from roasted and pulverized yellow field peas.
Peanut flour made from shelled/cooked peanuts is a higher protein alternative to regular flour.[14]
Potato starch flour is obtained by grinding the tubers to a pulp and removing the fibre and protein by water-washings. Potato starch (flour) is very white starch powder used as a thickening agent. Standard (native) potato starch needs boiling, to thicken in water, giving a transparent gel. Because the flour is made from neither grain nor legume, it is used as substitute for wheat flour in cooking by Jews during Passover, when grains are not eaten.
Potato flour, often confused with potato starch, is a peeled, (pre-)cooked potato powder of mashed, mostly drumdried and grinded potato flakes using the whole potato and thus containing the protein and some of the fibres of the potato; having an off-white slight yellowish color. These dehydrated, dried, potatoes or also called instant mashed potatoes can also be granules or flakes.[15] Potato flour is cold-water soluble; however, it isn't used often as it tends to be heavy.
Rice flour is ground kernels of rice. It is used in Western countries and especially for people who suffer from gluten intolerance, since rice does not contain gluten. Brown rice flour has higher nutritional value than white rice flour
Rye flour is used to bake the traditional sourdough breads of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Russia, Czech Republic, Poland and Scandinavia. Most rye breads use a mix of rye and wheat flours because rye does not produce sufficient gluten. Pumpernickel bread is usually made exclusively of rye, and contains a mixture of rye flour and rye meal.
Semolina is the coarse, purified wheat middlings of durum wheat used in making pasta, breakfast cereals, puddings, and couscous.
Sorghum flour is made from grinding whole grains of the sorghum plant. It is called jowar in India.
Spelt, an ancient grain, is a cousin to wheat. But the protein makeup is somewhat different and therefore, spelt flour is often tolerated by people who have mild allergies to certain proteins that develop when gluten is formed in making dough. Spelt dough needs less kneading than wheat dough.[16] Compared to hard-wheat flours, spelt flour has a relatively low (6 to 9%) protein count, just a little higher than pastry flour.[citation needed] That means that plain spelt flour works well in creating dough for soft foods such as cookies or pancakes. Crackers, turn out well because they are made from dough that does not need to rise when baked.[17]
Tapioca flour, produced from the root of the cassava plant, is used to make breads, pancakes, tapioca pudding, a savoury porridge called fufu in Africa, and is used as a starch.
Teff flour is made from the grain teff, and is of considerable importance in eastern Africa (particularly around the horn of Africa). Notably, it is the chief ingredient in the bread injera, an important component of Ethiopian cuisine.
More types[edit]
Main article: List of edible seeds
Flour can also be made from maize, soybeans, peanuts, arrowroot, taro, cattails, acorns, manioc, quinoa and other non-cereal foodstuffs.
Type numbers[edit]
In some markets, the different available flour varieties are labeled according to the ash mass ("mineral content") that remains after a sample is incinerated in a laboratory oven (typically at 550 °C or 900 °C, see international standards ISO 2171 and ICC 104/1). This is an easily verified indicator for the fraction of the whole grain remains in the flour, because the mineral content of the starchy endosperm is much lower than that of the outer parts of the grain. Flour made from all parts of the grain (extraction rate: 100%) leaves about 2 g ash or more per 100 g dry flour. Plain white flour (extraction rate: 50–60%) leaves only about 0.4 g.
German flour type numbers (Mehltypen) indicate the amount of ash (measured in milligrams) obtained from 100 g of the dry mass of this flour. Standard wheat flours (defined in DIN 10355) range from type 405 for normal white wheat flour for baking, to strong bread flour types 550, 812, and the darker types 1050 and 1600 for wholegrain breads.
French flour type numbers (type de farine) are a factor 10 smaller than those used in Germany, because they indicate the ash content (in milligrams) per 10 g flour. Type 55 is the standard, hard-wheat white flour for baking, including puff pastries ("pâte feuilletée"). Type 45 is often called pastry flour, and is generally from a softer wheat (this corresponds to what older French texts call "farine de gruau"). Some recipes use Type 45 for croissants, for instance,[18] although many French bakers use Type 55 or a combination of Types 45 and 55.[19] Types 65, 80, and 110 are strong bread flours of increasing darkness, and type 150 is a wholemeal flour.
Czech flour types describes roughness of milling instead of amount of ash, though sometimes a numbering system is used, it is not a rule. Czechs determine following four basic types of mill: Extra soft wheat flour (Výběrová hladká mouka / 00), Soft wheat flour (Hladká mouka / T650), Fine wheat flour (Polohrubá mouka), Rough wheat flour (Hrubá mouka) and Farina wheat flour (Pšeničná krupice)
Polish flour type numbers, as is the case in Germany, indicate the amount of ash in 100 g of the dry mass of the flour. Standard wheat flours (defined by the PKN in PN-A-74022:2003) range from type 450 to 2000.[20]
In the United States and the United Kingdom, no numbered standardized flour types are defined, and the ash mass is only rarely given on the label by flour manufacturers. However, the legally required standard nutrition label specifies the protein content of the flour, which is also a way for comparing the extraction rates of different available flour types.
In general, as the extraction rate of the flour increases, so do both the protein and the ash content. However, as the extraction rate approaches 100% (whole meal), the protein content drops slightly, while the ash content continues to rise.
The following table shows some typical examples of how protein and ash content relate to each other in wheat flour:
~0.4% ~9% pastry flour plain 405 40 00 Hladká mouka výběrová 00 tortowa 0000
~0.55% ~11% all-purpose flour plain 550 55 0 Hladká mouka luksusowa 000
~0.8% ~14% high gluten flour strong 812 80 1 Polohrubá mouka chlebowa 00
~1% ~15% first clear flour very strong 1050 110 2 Hrubá mouka sitkowa 0
>1.5% ~13% white whole wheat wholemeal 1600 150 Farina integrale di grano tenero Pšeničná Krupice graham, razowa ½ 0
This table is only a rough guideline for converting bread recipes. Since flour types are not standardized in many countries, the numbers may differ between manufacturers. Note that there is no Type 40 French flour. The closest is Type 45.
It is possible to determine ash content from some US manufacturers. However, US measurements are based on wheat with a 14% moisture content. Thus, a US flour with 0.48% ash would approximate a French Type 55. For US bakers of French pastry seeking an equivalent, for example, they could look at tables published by King Arthur Flour, showing their all-purpose flour is a close equivalent to French Type 55.
Other measurable properties of flour as used in baking can be determined using a variety of specialized instruments, such as the Farinograph.
Flammability[edit]
Flour dust suspended in air is explosive—as is any mixture of a finely powdered flammable substance with air[21] (see flour bomb). Some devastating and fatal explosions have occurred at flour mills, including an explosion in 1878 at the Washburn "A" Mill in Minneapolis, the largest flour mill in the United States at the time.[22]
Products[edit]
Bread, pasta, crackers, many cakes, and many other foods are made using flour. Wheat flour is also used to make a roux as a base for thickening gravy and sauces. It is also the base for papier-mâché.
Cornstarch is a principal ingredient used to thicken many puddings or desserts, and is the main ingredient in packaged custard.

So, there's some more factual information that I suspect many of you were just desperately needing to know.
Additionally, I received feedback from a member warning that baking powder feels coarse.

[Szalinski]

Talc and cornstarch [and later suggestions] are fine if your doll is that [IMO] almost anemic looking transparent white/pink that doll manufacturers pass off as 'fair skin'. However for 'Asian', 'tanned' and darker colored dolls they leave horrible looking white splotches. I have heard suggestions of adding cocoa powder to the talc/starch, but cocoa powder is very abrasive*. Does anyone know of a way to match the color of the powder to the color of the doll without the use of potentially damaging elements?

*Try rubbing some between your fingers if you don't believe me